Session 2.15: January 19, 2024

Scripture Reading: Acts 7:44-60

44 Our ancestors had the tabernacle of testimony in the wilderness, just as God who spoke to Moses ordered him to make it according to the design he had seen. 45 Our ancestors received possession of it and brought it in with Joshua when they dispossessed the nations that God drove out before our ancestors, until the time of David. 46 He found favor with God and asked that he could find a dwelling place for the house of Jacob. 47 But Solomon built a house for him. 48 Yet the Most High does not live in houses made by human hands, as the prophet says,

49 ‘Heaven is my throne,

and earth is the footstool for my feet.

What kind of house will you build for me, says the Lord,

or what is my resting place?

50 Did my hand not make all these things?’

51 “You stubborn people, with uncircumcised hearts and ears! You are always resisting the Holy Spirit, like your ancestors did! 52 Which of the prophets did your ancestors not persecute? They killed those who foretold long ago the coming of the Righteous One, whose betrayers and murderers you have now become! 53 You received the law by decrees given by angels, but you did not obey it.”

54 When they heard these things, they became furious and ground their teeth at him. 55 But Stephen, full of the Holy Spirit, looked intently toward heaven and saw the glory of God, and Jesus standing at the right hand of God. 56 “Look!” he said. “I see the heavens opened, and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God!” 57 But they covered their ears, shouting out with a loud voice, and rushed at him with one intent. 58 When they had driven him out of the city, they began to stone him, and the witnesses laid their cloaks at the feet of a young man named Saul. 59 They continued to stone Stephen while he prayed, “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!” 60 Then he fell to his knees and cried out with a loud voice, “Lord, do not hold this sin against them!” When he had said this, he died.

Main Themes

Where We Left Off

Last week we covered most of Stephen’s speech. Stephen recounts the lives of the heroes of the faith: Abraham, Joseph, and Moses. Several connections can be drawn between them and Jesus, with the most prominent connection being the idea of a deliverer that was rejected by his people (particularly evident in the stories of Joseph and Moses). This is evidence that the Jews’ rejection of Jesus does not mean Jesus was an impostor nor that, if Jesus really was the Messiah, God’s plan failed. Instead, it is the mark of a true deliverer. Christ’s rejection is fulfilled scripture (see also, Isaiah 43:1-4). It is a greater, alas the greatest, fulfillment of that archetype in scripture.

Stephen also reminds his hearers of their sins—their constant sins. Their idolatry merited exile, which climaxed with the Babylonian empire’s conquest of Israel. But, their sinful hearts were present even during the exodus. This is evidence that the Jews’ sinful behavior against Jesus was expected. As with the prior example, given Jesus’ identity, the Jews’ sinful behavior against God in the flesh is the greatest fulfillment of this archetype in scripture.

Now that Stephen’s words are fresh in our minds, let’s continue to read his conclusion and the audience’s reaction.

David & God’s House

Our ancestors had the tabernacle of testimony in the wilderness, just as God who spoke to Moses ordered him to make it according to the design he had seen. Our ancestors received possession of it and brought it in with Joshua when they dispossessed the nations that God drove out before our ancestors, until the time of David. He found favor with God and asked that he could find a dwelling place for the house of Jacob. But Solomon built a house for him. Yet the Most High does not live in houses made by human hands, as the prophet says,

‘Heaven is my throne, and earth is the footstool for my feet. What kind of house will you build for me, says the Lord, or what is my resting place? Did my hand not make all these things?’

“You stubborn people, with uncircumcised hearts and ears! You are always resisting the Holy Spirit, like your ancestors did! Which of the prophets did your ancestors not persecute? They killed those who foretold long ago the coming of the Righteous One, whose betrayers and murderers you have now become! You received the law by decrees given by angels, but you did not obey it.” Acts 7:44-53

When David, Israel’s greatest king, ruled the promised land, did God need a temple? Not only is the answer no, but God did not allow David to build a temple. Sure, Israel had a tabernacle, but that only furthers Stephen’s point. God will dwell where he will dwell. Moreover, even when the people had the tabernacle they still practiced idolatry continuously. A temple would not change that.

David’s son was finally allowed to build a temple. Although we already know the answer, let’s ask, Did God need a house to dwell among his people? Isaiah 66:1-2, quoted by Stephen, settles the matter.

‘Heaven is my throne, and earth is the footstool for my feet. What kind of house will you build for me, says the Lord, or what is my resting place? Did my hand not make all these things?’

This is why Stephen can confidently say, “Yet the Most High does not live in houses made by human hands . . . .” As the NET translators explain:

The phrase made by human hands is negative in the NT . . . . It suggests “man-made” or “impermanent.” The rebuke is like parts of the Hebrew scripture where the rebuke is not of the temple, but for making too much of it . . . .

The temple was an accommodation to human need, but God desired pure worship, not simply a place or institution.

Notice that in verses 40 and 41 of chapter 7, idolaters make gods with their own hands and worship them. In utter opposition, verses 48 and 49 tell us that nothing made can contain God because God has made all things.

Reversing the Charges, Circumcision of the Heart

Opposing the Law and the Temple

Recall from chapter 6 that Stephen faces two charges: he opposes the law and the temple. As we just discussed, Stephen argues against making too much of the temple. God was with his people before they had a temple; God refused Israel’s greatest king’s offer to build him a temple; God cannot be contained in anything created. Notice, this is not an anti-temple argument. Stephen is not advocating for the destruction or even the abandonment of the temple. Stephen is requesting that the temple be placed in proper perspective against the backdrop of God’s infinitude.

In verse 51, Stephen addresses the charge that he opposes the law. As we have discussed before, a common ancient rhetorical technique was to reverse a charge on the accuser. (This would have been terribly unwise in a trial context—at least if one wished to receive mercy. That is clearly not Stephen’s goal.) Stephen, in no uncertain terms, answers the question: who is disobeying the law? His accusers. They are spiritually uncircumcised (7: 51), murderers of the prophets (7: 52), and general disobeyers of the law (7: 53). His hearers’ resistance against the Holy Spirit places them in the same category as those who rejected the biblical prophets.

Circumcision of the Heart

God’s ideal was always that his people’s hearts be circumcised. We see this throughout the Old Testament.

Therefore, cleanse your hearts and stop being so stubborn! Deuteronomy 10:16

In this verse, the text translated as “cleanse” literally reads, “circumcise the foreskin of.” As the NET translators explain, “Just as that act signified total covenant obedience, so spiritual circumcision (cleansing of the heart) signifies more internally a commitment to be pliable and obedient to the will of God . . . .”

God makes clear that an external circumcision without a circumcision of heart was never any good.

The Lord says, “Watch out! The time is soon coming when I will punish all those who are circumcised only in the flesh. That is, I will punish the Egyptians, the Judeans, the Edomites, the Ammonites, the Moabites, and all the desert people who cut their hair short at the temples. I will do so because none of the people of those nations are really circumcised in the Lord’s sight. Moreover, none of the people of Israel are circumcised when it comes to their hearts.” Jeremiah 9:25-26

This is a fundamental Christian belief—and Stephen’s speech makes it clear that it was fundamental to Judaism as well. We generally speak of Judaism as a religion based purely on strict adherence to laws. Notice, that is not entirely correct. As I have repeated before, Jesus’ followers are not attempting to replace Judaism with a new religion but to “do” Judaism correctly.

Sincere Belief

Let’s explore this idea of sincere belief in one’s heart. There are many New Testament passages to this effect.

Because if you confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. Romans 10:9, emphasis added

Therefore, brothers and sisters, since we have confidence to enter the sanctuary by the blood of Jesus, by the fresh and living way that he inaugurated for us through the curtain, that is, through his flesh, and since we have a great priest over the house of God, let us draw near with a sincere heart in the assurance that faith brings, because we have had our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil conscience and our bodies washed in pure water. And let us hold unwaveringly to the hope that we confess, for the one who made the promise is trustworthy. Hebrews 10:19-23, emphasis added

Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God. Matthew 5:8, emphasis added

“Watch out for false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are voracious wolves. You will recognize them by their fruit. Grapes are not gathered from thorns or figs from thistles, are they? In the same way, every good tree bears good fruit, but the bad tree bears bad fruit. A good tree is not able to bear bad fruit, nor a bad tree to bear good fruit. Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. So then, you will recognize them by their fruit. Not everyone who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter into the kingdom of heaven—only the one who does the will of my Father in heaven. On that day, many will say to me, ‘Lord, Lord, didn’t we prophesy in your name, and cast out demons in your name, and do many powerful deeds in your name?’ Then I will declare to them, ‘I never knew you. Go away from me, you lawbreakers!’ Matthew 7:15-23, emphasis added

Because of verses such as these, Christians generally believe that outside behaviors will not save a man. Only Jesus saves. And Jesus will only save those who earnestly wish to be saved; those who wish to be righteous; those who wish to love and be loved the way that Love himself would have it; those who truly wish for true Heaven. Those people not only believe in God but believe God. God is not only real but the master and the prize.

Stephen—The First Martyr

Martyrs, in the ancient world and today, function as models. They are like brave soldiers who die upon the battlefield inspiring other soldiers. Stories of martyrs were not foreign to ancient Jews. The Maccabean martyrs would have been well-remembered examples at the time of Jesus. Gentiles (i.e., non-Jews) had their martyr stories too.

Stephen is the first Christian martyr. As such, the church fathers regarded him as the “protomartyr,” offering an example for many to follow. Stephen’s martyrdom is also special because of the parallels with Jesus’ death. See below for a chart from Craig Keener’s commentary on Acts that compares the deaths of Jesus and Stephen.

The Sanhedrin’s Power to Execute

I discussed the Sanhedrin’s inability to carry out capital punishment during our study of John. Here I will provide a brief reminder.

Rome jealously guarded the power of capital punishment. Generally, only the Roman representative in the area (e.g., governor) could approve it. Local councils could pronounce capital punishment but, without ratification from Roman authorities, carrying it out would have been a serious affront against the empire. The Sanhedrin was no different. (To be fair, some scholars think that Rome allowed the Sanhedrin to execute capital sentences directly, but this is highly unlikely and not widely accepted. Moreover, that theory does not make sense of Pontius Pilate’s involvement in Jesus’ death.)

The Roman authorities may have looked the other way in the case of lynchings—since they would not have been a deliberate and organized defiance of Rome. However, even deaths by lynching could generate complaints to Rome.

For these reasons, scholars debate whether Acts 7 is narrating a formal trial of Stephen, a trial and a later lynching, or a trial quickly followed by a lynching. If Acts 7 describes a trial and a formally executed punishment, perhaps the Jewish authorities sought Roman ratification of Stephen’s death penalty after the fact. Proponents of this theory suggest that otherwise (that is, without Roman approval), the Jewish persecution of Christians involving arrests and investigations reaching as far as Damascus, would have met Roman resistance.

The second proposal is that Stephen’s trial and Stephen’s death were not immediately successive events. Some time passed and a mob did what the Sanhedrin could not. To take this view, one must believe that Luke collapsed and confused both events in his narrative. This view does not treat the text seriously and there are more plausible alternatives.

What about a trial and an immediate lynching? Perhaps the Sanhedrin did not intend to execute Stephen on the spot, but things just got out of control. Oops. I am sure they were devastated. Mob violence was a common phenomenon of ancient life, particularly in Jewish court settings. Jewish trials often devolved into unruly shouting and could degenerate further than this. Surprisingly, throwing stones at one’s legal adversaries was not unusual. So, the proposition that the action went from throwing stones to a stoning is not hard to believe.

The Great Reversal

I will argue that there is a running double entendre beginning on verse 7:54 and ending with verse 8:1. At every turn, what is happening on earth is the opposite of what is happening in heaven. The good guys are the bad guys, the condemned is innocent, human justice is God’s injustice. Ultimately, the winners are the losers, and the losers are the winners. The effect of the juxtaposition is to give us hope than one day all will be set right.

Furious, Grinding Their Teeth

The Jewish accusers became “furious” with Stephen—a strong word used only once more in the New Testament, the prior trial of the apostles in chapter 5. Unlike chapter 5, no Gamaliel intervenes. In their anger, the accusers “grind their teeth.” The literal expression is “gnashed their teeth.” This could indicate anger or frustration (see, for example, Psalm 112:10), but it often conveyed anguish. The phrase appears in relation to judgment and hell. For example:

Then Jesus traveled throughout towns and villages, teaching and making his way toward Jerusalem. Someone asked him, “Lord, will only a few be saved?” So he said to them, “Exert every effort to enter through the narrow door because many, I tell you, will try to enter and will not be able to. Once the head of the house gets up and shuts the door, then you will stand outside and start to knock on the door and beg him, ‘Lord, let us in!’ But he will answer you, ‘I don’t know where you come from.’ Then you will begin to say, ‘We ate and drank in your presence, and you taught in our streets.’ But he will reply, ‘I don’t know where you come from! Go away from me, all you evildoers!’ There will be weeping and gnashing of teeth when you see Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and all the prophets in the kingdom of God but you yourselves thrown out. Then people will come from east and west, and from north and south, and take their places at the banquet table in the kingdom of God. But indeed, some are last who will be first, and some are first who will be last.” Luke 13:22-30, emphasis added

The reversal—the irony— is that those who gnash their teeth in anger persecuting the righteous will gnash their teeth in anguish upon the final judgment.

Looking to Heaven; Seeing God’s Glory

Today, we pray by bowing our heads and closing our eyes. There is nothing inherently spiritual about this. It is a cultural preference. In Jesus’ day, looking to heaven was a common posture for prayer. Presumably, this was because God resided in heaven.

Stephen does exactly as expected and looks intently towards heaven. Before his prayer, he has a vision. He sees the glory of God and Jesus standing at the right hand of God. Some other Jewish texts presented similar heavenly visions, although they were often ambiguous. The speaker may have been narrating events as if he were actually seeing them when both him and his audience understood that he was not. Stephen’s case contains no such ambiguity. Both the narrator and Stephen tell us he is genuinely seeing something.

Stephen claims that the heavens opened. We have heard these words before.

Now when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized. And while he was praying, the heavens opened, and the Holy Spirit descended on him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven, “You are my one dear Son; in you I take great delight.” Luke 3:21-22, emphasis added

Further, notice that Stephen sees God’s glory in heaven rather than in the temple. As Stephen has just declared, heaven is God’s throne, rather than any earthly temple containing him.

Most important, however, is that Stephen’s vision of the Son of Man at God’s right hand clearly parallels Jesus’s announcement of the Son of Man at God’s right hand.

Now the men who were holding Jesus under guard began to mock him and beat him. They blindfolded him and asked him repeatedly, “Prophesy! Who hit you?” They also said many other things against him, reviling him. When day came, the council of the elders of the people gathered together, both the chief priests and the experts in the law. Then they led Jesus away to their council and said, “If you are the Christ, tell us.” But he said to them, “If I tell you, you will not believe, and if I ask you, you will not answer. But from now on the Son of Man will be seated at the right hand of the power of God.” So they all said, “Are you the Son of God, then?” He answered them, “You say that I am.” Then they said, “Why do we need further testimony? We have heard it ourselves from his own lips!” Luke 22:63-71, emphasis added

Stephen’s vision confirms to him and to us that his sacrifice is not in vain. The promises of Jesus are true. He reigns. Jesus lives so Stephen shall live again. We should also note that the title “Son of Man” is rare outside the Gospels and barely ever occurs on anyone’s lips but Jesus’. Stephen is relying on the words of his lord.

Right Hand

That Jesus is at the Father’s right hand emphasizes the claim of his exaltation as sovereign Messiah and Lord, the “Lord” of Ps 110.

Here is the Lord’s proclamation to my lord: “Sit down at my right hand until I make your enemies your footstool.” The Lord extends your dominion from Zion. Rule in the midst of your enemies. Your people willingly follow you when you go into battle. On the holy hills at sunrise the dew of your youth belongs to you. The Lord makes this promise on oath and will not revoke it: “You are an eternal priest after the pattern of Melchizedek.” O Lord, at your right hand he strikes down kings in the day he unleashes his anger. Psalm 110:1b-5, emphasis added

Even if the Sanhedrin did not believe Stephen, they would have felt the political defiance embedded in his alleged vision. Stephen is claiming that the Jesus they crucified claims an alternate kingdom, a greater kingdom. Here is the second piece of the double entendre. The Sanhedrin believes itself to be sovereign. If they are sovereign at all it is of a small kingdom. The true sovereign is Jesus, sitting at the right hand of God almighty.

The True Trial—Standing

Stephen sees Jesus standing at God’s right hand. This is unusual. Generally, Jesus is depicted as sitting next to the Father (e.g., Psalm 110:1; Hebrews 1:3; Ephesians 1:20-21).

The Old Testament depicted witnesses as standing. (A vindicating witness would stand at the right hand of the accused.) Here, recall that Stephen is being accused by false witnesses, who presumably would also be standing to testify against Stephen. A standing Jesus conveys the contrasting image that as Stephen is accused by the earthly tribunal at the hands of deceitful men, he is vindicated in the heavenly tribunal by the testimony of Jesus.

The motif of vindication is reinforced by the fact that although judges generally sat though cases, tradition is that they stood to render a verdict. So, a standing Jesus also conveys the idea that as Stephen is convicted by the earthly tribunal, Jesus acquits him.

Hear No Evil

Upon Stephen’s description of his vision, the crowd rushes at him with “one intent.” Perhaps the crowd is outraged by what they interpret as further blasphemy. Perhaps the crowd is outraged because they understand Stephen’s words as a political claim that defies the authority of the Sanhedrin. Perhaps both are true.

When the crowd launches at Stephen, they cover their ears and shout (or “cry”) in a loud voice. Why would they do this? Covering one’s ears to prevent hearing further blasphemy may have been considered a pious act. In a sense, they were keeping themselves clean from Stephen’s blasphemy.

Here is another, powerful ironic reversal. The crowd shuts its ears and cries to make sure the message will not reach it. Recall what Stephen said just a few verses before, “You stubborn people, with uncircumcised hearts and ears! You are always resisting the Holy Spirit, like your ancestors did!” The Jews think they are closing their ears to lies when they are closing their ears to truth.

The Punishment

Cast Out

Stephen is “driven out” of the city, also translated as “cast out.” Standard Jewish custom was to cast someone out of the city before executing them. Jesus was also “cast out” in the parable of the vineyard.

Then he began to tell the people this parable: “A man planted a vineyard, leased it to tenant farmers, and went on a journey for a long time. When harvest time came, he sent a slave to the tenants so that they would give him his portion of the crop. However, the tenants beat his slave and sent him away empty-handed. So he sent another slave. They beat this one too, treated him outrageously, and sent him away empty-handed. So he sent still a third. They even wounded this one and threw him out. Then the owner of the vineyard said, ‘What should I do? I will send my one dear son; perhaps they will respect him.’ But when the tenants saw him, they said to one another, ‘This is the heir; let’s kill him so the inheritance will be ours!’ So they threw him out of the vineyard and killed him. What then will the owner of the vineyard do to them? Luke 20:9-15, emphasis added

Stoning

Greeks and other peoples, like Jews, executed people by stoning. Roman law limited these local forms of punishment, but even in this period Roman law could not prevent stoning from occurring altogether, since it was a common way for mobs to execute vengeance without regard for official laws. Stoning was often a mob action both in Israel and elsewhere.

Stoning was simply the most ready-to-hand form of public violence available, including in Judea. Stoning was appropriate for blasphemy, among other offenses, and had to be done outside the city.

Oftentimes God’s people tried to stone God’s prophets.

God’s Spirit energized Zechariah son of Jehoiada the priest. He stood up before the people and said to them, “This is what God says: ‘Why are you violating the commands of the Lord? You will not be prosperous. Because you have rejected the Lord, he has rejected you!’” They plotted against him and by royal decree stoned him to death in the courtyard of the Lord’s temple. 2 Chronicles 24:20-21

Then Moses cried out to the Lord, “What will I do with this people?—a little more and they will stone me!” Exodus 17:4

In a stoning, witnesses were the first to cast stones, perhaps as a deterrent to false witnesses.

Laid Their Cloaks

The hostile witnesses discard their “cloaks” (ἱμάτια). Most people wore a tunic or shirt composed of two pieces of cloth sewn together. The simplest form was sleeveless, but in cooler weather one could add a himation (a rectangular piece of cloth draped around the body). Thus the removal of the cloak does not involve complete nakedness.

Why did the witnesses remove their cloaks? For a simple but morbid reason. Because they were about to engage in strenuous exercise to stone Stephen. Nevertheless, the self-stripping gives us our last “great reversal.” Prisoners were often stripped naked before they received their public punishment, such as lashings or stoning. Nakedness increased their shame. (Nakedness had been shameful for Jewish people throughout their history.) Luke portrays the Hellenist accusers as stripping themselves for a strenuous physical activity but, in so doing, portrays them ironically as the guilty party.

The Prayer

Like I mentioned above, today we pray in silence (except in some corporate settings), but ancient Jews prayed out loud. So, people generally heard the supplicant’s prayer. Also, kneeling was a common posture for prayer, denoting submission. Stephen’s prayer was:

Lord Jesus, receive my spirit! Lord, do not hold this sin against them!

This prayer recalls Jesus’ prayer before his death.

But Jesus said, “Father, forgive them, for they don’t know what they are doing.” Luke 23:34a*

Then Jesus, calling out with a loud voice, said, “Father, into your hands I commit my spirit!” Luke 23:46

(*There is some textual controversy regarding the first part of verse Luke 23:34. The verse may not be original but still historically authentic.)

The person addressed in Stephen’s prayer is significant. He is “calling on the name of the Lord” fulfilling the words of Peter’s speech (quoting the prophet Joel).

And then everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved. Acts 2:21

Moreover, notice that in the gospels Jesus addressed the Father. Stephen call out to “Lord Jesus.” This is highly significant. Stephen thought of Jesus as God.

The climax of the scene of Stephen’s martyrdom (before his death) is his prayer for his persecutors. Jesus taught prayer for one’s oppressors.

But I say to you who are listening: Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you. Luke 6:27-28

You have heard that it was said, “Love your neighbor” and “hate your enemy.” But I say to you, love your enemy and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be like your Father in heaven, since he causes the sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Even the tax collectors do the same, don’t they? And if you only greet your brothers, what more do you do? Even the Gentiles do the same, don’t they? Matthew 5:43-47

Stephen’s prayer for his accusers is particularly shocking if we understand their culture. Jewish people believed in confessing sins before God as a form of atonement. Normally death was considered sufficient suffering to atone for a Jewish person, if coupled with repentance. Thus one in danger might pray for safety and add, as a precaution, “May my death atone for all my sins.” People condemned to capital punishment were invited to make confession a few feet from the site of execution so that they could share in the coming world.

So, imagine the shock when Stephen confesses not his own sins but those of his opponents. Also shocking is the fact that unlike most martyrs who prayed for vindication, Stephen’s prayer was for mercy rather than justice. This is Christ’s love. This is Christian love.